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History Of Technology

Measuring technological progress

Many sociologists and anthropologists have created social theories dealing with social and cultural evolution. Some, like Lewis H. Morgan, Leslie White, and Gerhard Lenski, declare technological progress to be the primary factor driving the development of human civilization. Morgan's concept of three major stages of social evolution (savagery, barbarism, and civilization) can be divided by technological milestones, like fire, the bow, and pottery in the savage era, domestication of animals, agriculture, and metalworking in the barbarian era and the alphabet and writing in the civilization era.

Instead of specific inventions, White decided that the measure by which to judge the evolution of culture was energy. For White "the primary function of culture" is to "harness and control energy." White differentiates between five stages of human development: In the first, people use energy of their own muscles. In the second, they use energy of domesticated animals. In the third, they use the energy of plants (agricultural revolution). In the fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In the fifth, they harness nuclear energy. White introduced a formula P=E*T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilizing the energy. In his own words, "culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased, or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased". Russian astronomer, Nikolai Kardashev, extrapolated his theory creating the Kardashev scale, which categorizes the energy use of advanced civilizations.

Lenski takes a more modern approach and focuses on information. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is. He identifies four stages of human development, based on advances in the history of communication. In the first stage, information is passed by genes. In the second, when humans gain sentience, they can learn and pass information through by experience. In the third, the humans start using signs and develop logic. In the fourth, they can create symbols, develop language and writing. Advancements in the technology of communication translates into advancements in the economic system and political system, distribution of wealth, social inequality and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy:

hunters and gatherers,

simple agricultural,

advanced agricultural,

industrial,

special (such as fishing societies).

Finally, from the late 1970s sociologists and anthropologists like Alvin Toffler (author of Future Shock), Daniel Bell and John Naisbitt have approached the theories of post-industrial societies, arguing that the current era of industrial society is coming to an end, and services and information are becoming more important than industry and goods. Some of the more extreme visions of the post-industrial society, especially in fiction, are strikingly similar to the visions of near and post-Singularity societies.

By period and geography

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Early technology

Agriculture preceded writing in the history of technology.

Olduvai stone technology (Olduwan) 2.5 million years ago (scrapers; to butcher dead animals)

Acheulean stone technology 1.6 million years ago (hand axe)

Fire creation and manipulation, used since the Paleolithic, possibly by Homo erectus as early as 1.5 Million years ago

(Homo sapiens sapiens - modern human anatomy arises, around 200,000 years ago.)

Clothing possibly 100,000 years ago.

Stone tools, used by Homo floresiensis, possibly 100,000 years ago.

Ceramics ca. 25,000 BC

Domestication of Animals, ca. 15,000 BC

Bow, sling ca. 9th millennium BC

Microliths ca. 9th millennium BC

Copper ca. 8000 BC

Agriculture and Plough ca. 8000 BC

Wheel ca. 4000 BC

Gnomon ca. 4000 BC

Writing systems ca. 3500 BC

Bronze ca. 3300 BC

Salt

Chariot ca. 2000 BC

Iron ca. 1500 BC

Sundial ca. 800 BC

Glass ca. 500 BC

Catapult ca. 400 BC

Horseshoe ca. 300 BC

Stirrup first few centuries AD

Stone Age

A variety of stone tools

During the Stone Age, all humans had a lifestyle which involved limited use of tools and few, if any, permanent settlements. The first major technologies, then, were tied to survival, hunting, and food preparation in this environment. Fire, stone tools and weapons, and clothing were technological developments of major importance during this period. Stone Age cultures developed music, and engaged in organized warfare. A subset of Stone Age humans developed ocean-worthy outrigger ship technology, leading to an eastward migration across the Malay archipelago, across the Indian ocean to Madagascar and also across the Pacific Ocean, which required knowledge of the ocean currents, weather patterns, sailing, celestial navigation, and star maps. The early Stone Age is described as Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic. The former is generally used to describe the early Stone Age in areas with limited glacial impact. The later Stone Age, during which the rudiments of agricultural technology were developed, is called the Neolithic period. During this period, polished stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks such as flint, jade, jadeite and greenstone, largely by working exposures as quarries, but later the valuable rocks were pursued by tunnelling underground, the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were used for forest clearance and the establishment of crop farming, and were so effective as to remain in use when bronze and iron appeared.

Although Paleolithic cultures left no written records, the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence. Such evidence includes ancient tools, cave paintings, and other prehistoric art, such as the Venus of Willendorf. Human remains also provide direct evidence, both through the examination of bones, and the study of mummies. Though concrete evidence is limited, scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples, and the role technology played in their lives.

Copper and Bronze Age

A late Bronze Age sword or dagger blade.

The Stone Age developed into the Bronze Age after the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution involved radical changes in agricultural technology which included development of agriculture, animal domestication, and the adoption of permanent settlements. These combined factors made possible the development of metal smelting, with copper and later bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, being the materials of choice, although polished stone tools continued to be used for a considerable time owing to their abundance compared with the less common metals (especially tin).

This technological trend apparently began in the Fertile Crescent, and spread outward over time. It should be noted that these developments were not, and still are not, universal. The Three-age system does not accurately describe the technology history of groups outside of Eurasia, and does not apply at all in the case of some isolated populations, such as the Spinifex People, the Sentinelese, and various Amazonian tribes, which still make use of Stone Age technology, and have not developed agricultural or metal technology.

Iron Age

An axehead made of iron, dating from Swedish Iron Age.

The Iron Age involved the adoption of iron smelting technology. It generally replaced bronze, and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents. In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last major step before the development of written language, though again this was not universally the case. It was not possible to mass manufacture steel because high furnace temperatures were needed, but steel could be produced by forging bloomery iron to reduce the carbon content in a controllable way. Iron ores were much more widespread than either copper or tin. In Europe, large hill forts were built either as a refuge in time of war, or sometimes as permanent settlements. In some cases, existing forts from the Bronze Age were expanded and enlarged. The pace of land clearance using the more effective iron axes increased, providing more farmland to support the growing population.

By 1000 BC 500 BC, the Germanic tribes had a Bronze Age civilization, while the Celts were in the Iron Age by the time of the Hallstatt culture. Their cultures collided with the military and agricultural practices of the Romans, leading those Europeans who were conquered to adopt Roman technological advances.

Ancient civilizations

Main article: Ancient technology

It was the growth of the ancient civilizations which produced the greatest advances in technology and engineering, advances which stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of living and governance.

The Egyptians invented and used many simple machines, such as the ramp to aid construction processes. The Indus Valley Civilization, situated in a resource-rich area, is notable for its early application of city planning and sanitation technologies. Ancient India was also at the forefront of seafaring technology panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicts a sailing craft. Indian construction and architecture, called 'Vaastu Shastra', suggests a thorough understanding of materials engineering, hydrology, and sanitation.

The Chinese made many first-known discoveries and developments. Major technological contributions from China include early seismological detectors, matches, paper, cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the magnetic compass, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, the South Pointing Chariot, and gun powder.

An illustration of the aeolipile, the earliest steam-powered device

Greek and Hellenistic engineers invented many technologies and improved upon pre-existing technologies. Particularly the Hellenistic period saw a sharp rise in technological inventiveness, fostered by a climate of openness to new idea, royal patronage the blossom of a mechanistic philosophy and the establishment of the Library of Alexandria and its close association with the adjacent museion. In contrast to the typically anonymous inventor of earlier ages, ingenuine minds such as Archimedes, Philo of Byzantium, Heron and Ctesibius now remained known by name to posterity.

Ancient Greek innovations were particularly pronounced in mechanical technology, including the ground-breaking invention of the watermill which constituted the first human-devised motive force not to rely on muscle labour (besides the sail). Apart from their pioneer use of waterpower, Greek inventors were also the first to experiment with wind power (see Heron's windwheel) and even created the earliest steam engine (the aeolipile), opening up entirely new possibilities in harnessing natural forces whose full potential came only to be exploited in the industrial revolution. Of particular importance for the operation of mechanical devices became the newly devised right-angled gear and the screw.

The compartmented water-wheel, here its overshot version, was invented in Hellenistic times

Ancient agriculture, as in any period prior to the modern age the primary mode of production and subsistence, and its irrigation methods were considerably advanced by the invention and widespread application of a number of previously unknown water-lifting devices, such as the vertical water-wheel, the compartmented wheel, the water turbine, Archimedes screw, the suction pump, the bucket-chain and pot-garland, the force pump, the suction pump, the double-action piston pump and quite possibly the chain pump.

In music, water organ, invented by Ctesibius and subsequently improved, constituted the earliest instance of a keyboard instrument. In time-keeping, the introduction of the inflow clepsydra and its mechanization by the dial and pointer, the application of a feedback system and the escapement mechanism far superseded the earlier outflow clepsydra.

The famous Antikythera mechanism, a kind of analogous computer working with a differential gear, and the astrolabe show great refinement in the astronomical science.

Greek engineers were also the first to devise automaton such as vending machines, suspended ink pots, automatic washstands and doors, primarily as toys, which however featured many new useful mechanisms such as the cam and gimbals.

In other fields, ancient Greek inventions include the catapult and the gastraphetes crossbow in warfare, hollow bronze-casting in metallurgy, the dioptra for surveying, in infrastructure the lighthouse, central heating, the tunnel excavated from both ends by scientific calculations, the ship trackway, the dry dock and plumbing. In horizontal vertical and transport great progress resulted from the invention of the crane, the winch, the wheelbarrow and the odometer.

Further newly created techniques and items were spiral staircases, the chain drive, sliding calipers and showers.

Pont du Gard in France, a Roman aqueduct

The Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working technology, created laws providing for individual ownership, advanced stone masonry technology, advanced road-building (exceeded only in the 19th century), military engineering, civil engineering, spinning and weaving and several different machines like the Gallic reaper that helped to increase productivity in many sectors of the Roman economy. Roman engineers were the first to build monumental arches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, public baths, true arch bridges, harbours, reservoirs and dams, vaults and domes on a very large scale across their Empire. Notable Roman inventions include the book (Codex), glass blowing and concrete. Because Rome was located on a volcanic peninsula, with sand which contained suitable crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans formulated was especially durable. Some of their buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present day.

The engineering skills of the Inca and the Mayans were great, even by today's standards. An example is the use of pieces weighing in upwards of one ton in their stonework placed together so that not even a blade can fit in-between the cracks. The villages used irrigation canals and drainage systems, making agriculture very efficient. While some claim that the Incas were the first inventors of hydroponics, their agricultural technology was still soil based, if advanced. Though the Maya civilization had no metallurgy or wheel technology, they developed complex writing and astrological systems, and created sculptural works in stone and flint. Like the Inca, the Maya also had command of fairly advanced agricultural and construction technology. Throughout this time period much of this construction, was made only by women, as men of the Maya civilization believed that females were responsible for the creation of new things. The main contribution of the Aztec rule was a system of communications between the conquered cities. In Mesoamerica, without draft animals for transport (nor, as a result, wheeled vehicles), the roads were designed for travel on foot, just like the Inca and Mayan civilizations.

Medieval and Modern technologies

Medieval Europe

Medieval counterweight trebuchet (reconstruction)

Main article: Medieval technology

European technology in the Middle Ages may be best described as a symbiosis of traditio et innovatio. While medieval technology has been long depicted as a step backwards in the evolution of Western technology, sometimes willfully so by modern authors intent on denouncing the church as antagonistic to scientific progress (see e.g. Myth of the Flat Earth), a generation of medievalists around the American historian of science Lynn White stressed from the 1940s onwards the innovative character of many medieval techniques. Genuine medieval contributions include for example mechanical clocks, spectacles and vertical windmills. Medieval ingenuity was also displayed in the invention of seemingly inconspicuous items like the watermark or the functional button. In navigation, the foundation to the subsequent age of exploration was laid by the introduction of pintle-and-gudgeon rudders, lateen sails, the dry compass the horseshoe and the astrolabe.

Significant advances were also made in military technology with the development of plate armour, steel crossbows, counterweight trebuchets and cannon. Perhaps best known are the Middle Ages for their architectural heritage: While the invention of the rib vault and pointed arch gave rise to the high rising Gothic style, the ubiquitous medieval fortifications gave the era the almost proverbial title of the 'age of castles'.

Muslim Agricultural Revolution

Main articles: Muslim Agricultural Revolution, Inventions in the Islamic world, and Timeline of Muslim scientists and engineers

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From the 8th century, the medieval Islamic world witnessed a fundamental transformation in agriculture known as the "Muslim Agricultural Revolution", "Arab Agricultural Revolution", or "Green Revolution". Due to the global economy established by Muslim traders across the Old World during the "Afro-Asiatic age of discovery" or "Pax Islamica", this enabled the diffusion of many crops, plants and farming techniques between different parts of the Islamic world, as well as the adaptation of crops, plants and techniques from beyond the Islamic world, distributed throughout Islamic lands which normally would not be able to grow these crops. The diffusion of numerous crops during this period led, along with an increased mechanization of agriculture, led to major changes in economy, population distribution, vegetation cover, agricultural production and income, population levels, urban growth, the distribution of the labour force, linked industries, cooking and diet, clothing, and numerous other aspects of life in the Islamic world.

Muslim engineers in the Islamic world were responsible for numerous innovative industrial uses of hydropower, the early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, and petroleum, and large factory complexes (tiraz in Arabic). The industrial uses of watermills were in widespread use since the 8th century. A variety of industrial mills were developed in the Islamic world, including fulling mills, gristmills, hullers, paper mills, sawmills, shipmills, stamp mills, steel mills, sugar mills, and windmills. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. Muslim engineers also developed crankshafts and water turbines.

A significant number of inventions were produced by Muslim scientists and engineers during this time, including inventors such as Abbas Ibn Firnas, Taqi al-Din, and especially al-Jazari. Some of the developments from the Islamic Golden Age include the coffee, hard soap, shampoo, nitric acid, alembic, valve, reciprocating, quilting, surgical catgut, windmill, inoculation, fountain pen, cryptanalysis, frequency analysis, quartz glass, modern cheque, explosive rockets and incendiary devices.

Renaissance

Main article: Renaissance technology

Dome of Florence Cathedral

Design for a flying machine (c.1488) by da Vinci

The era is marked by such profound technical advancements like the printing press, linear perceptivity, patent law, double shell domes or Bastion fortresses. Note books of the Renaissance artist-engineers such as Taccola and Leonardo da Vinci give a deep insight into the mechanical technology then known and applied. Architects and engineers were inspired by the structures of Ancient Rome, and men like Brunelleschi created the large dome of Florence Cathedral as a result. He was awarded one of the first patents ever issued in order to protect an ingenious crane he designed to raise the large masonry stones to the top of the structure. Military technology developed rapidly with the widespread use of the cross-bow and ever more powerful artillery, as the city-states of Italy were usually in conflict with one another. Powerful families like the Medici were strong patrons of the arts and sciences. Renaissance science spawned the Scientific Revolution; science and technology began a cycle of mutual advancement.

Age of Exploration

Main article: Age of Exploration

The sailing ship (Nau or Carrack) enabled the Age of Exploration with the European colonization of the Americas, epitomized by Francis Bacon's The New Atlantis. Pioneers like Vasco de Gama, Cabral, Magellan and Christopher Columbus explored the world in search of new trade routes for their goods and contacts with Africa, India and China which shortened the journey compared with traditional routes overland. They also re-discovered the Americas while doing so. They produced new maps and charts which enabled following mariners to explore further with greater confidence. Navigation was generally difficult however owing to the problem of longitude and the absence of accurate chronometers. European powers rediscovered the idea of the civil code, lost since the time of the Ancient Greeks.

Industrial Revolution

Main article: Industrial Revolution

A Watt steam engine

The Iron Bridge

The British Industrial Revolution is characterized by developments in the areas of textile manufacturing, mining, metallurgy and transport driven by the development of the steam engine. Above all else, the revolution was driven by cheap energy in the form of coal, produced in ever-increasing amounts from the abundant resources of Britain. Coal converted to coke gave the blast furnace and cast iron in much larger amounts than before, and a range of structures could be created, such as The Iron Bridge. Cheap coal meant that industry was no longer constrained by water resources driving the mills, although it continued as a valuable source of power. The steam engine helped drain the mines, so more coal reserves could be accessed, and the output of coal increased. The development of the high-pressure steam engine made locomotives possible, and a transport revolution followed.

19th century

The preserved Rocket

The 19th century saw astonishing developments in transportation, construction, and communication technologies originating in Europe, especially in Britain. The Steam Engine which had existed since the early 18th century, was practically applied to both steamboat and railway transportation. The first purpose built railway line opened between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830, the Rocket locomotive of Robert Stephenson being one of the first working locomotives used on the line. Telegraphy also developed into a practical technology in the 19th century to help run the railways safely.

Other technologies were explored for the first time, including the Incandescent light bulb. The Portsmouth Block Mills was where manufacture of ships' pulley blocks by all-metal machines first took place and instigated the age of mass production. Machine tools used by engineers to manufacture other machines began in the first decade of the century, notably by Richard Roberts and Joseph Whitworth. Steamships were eventually completely iron-clad, and played a role in the opening of Japan and China to trade with the West. Mechanical computing was envisioned by Charles Babbage but did not come to fruition. The Second Industrial Revolution at the end of the 19th century saw rapid development of chemical, electrical, petroleum, and steel technologies connected with highly structured technology research.

20th century

Landing on the Moon

20th Century technology developed rapidly. Communication technology, transportation technology, broad teaching and implementation of scientific method, and increased research spending all contributed to the advancement of modern science and technology. Due to the scientific gains directly tied to military research and development, technologies including electronic computing might have developed as rapidly as they did in part due to war. Radio, radar, and early sound recording were key technologies which paved the way for the telephone, fax machine, and magnetic storage of data. Energy and engine technology improvements were also vast, including nuclear power, developed after the Manhattan project. Transport by rocketry: most work occurred in the U.S. (Goddard), Russia (Tsiolkovsky) and Germany (Oberth). Making use of computers and advanced research labs, modern scientists have recombinant DNA.

The National Academy of Engineering, by expert vote, established the following ranking of the most important technological developments of the 20th century :

Electrification

Automobile

Airplane

Water supply and Distribution

Electronics

Radio and Television

Mechanised agriculture

Computers

Telephone

Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

Highways

Spacecraft

Internet

Imaging

Household appliances

Health Technologies

Petroleum and Petrochemical Technologies

Laser and Fiber Optics

Nuclear technologies

Materials science

21st century

The Mars Exploration Rovers have provided huge amounts of information by functioning well beyond NASA's original lifespan estimates.

Main article: 2000s in science and technology

In the 21st century, technology is being developed even more rapidly, especially in electronics and biotechnology. Broadband Internet access became commonplace in developed countries, as did connecting home computers with music libraries and mobile phones.

Research is ongoing into quantum computers, nanotechnology, bioengineering, nuclear fusion (see ITER and DEMO), advanced materials (e.g., enhanced armor), the scramjet (along with railguns and high-energy beams for military uses), superconductivity, the memristor, and green technologies such as alternative fuels (e.g., fuel cells, plugin hybrid cars) and more efficient LEDs and solar cells.

The understanding of particle physics is also expected to expand through particle accelerator projects, such as the Large Hadron Collider the largest science project in the world and neutrino detectors such as the ANTARES. Theoretical physics currently investigates quantum gravity proposals such as M-theory, superstring theory, and loop quantum gravity.

Spacecraft designs are also being developed, i.a. under the Project Constellation (see Orion and Ares V). The James Webb Space Telescope will try to identify early galaxies as well as the exact location of the Solar System within our galaxy, using the infrared spectrum. The finished International Space Station will provide an intermediate platform for space missions and zero gravity experiments. Despite challenges and criticism, NASA and ESA plan a manned mission to Mars in the 2030s.

By type of technology

History of biotechnology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of biotechnology

To be incorporated into main article:

Timeline of agriculture and food technology

Hunter-gatherer

Agriculture

Food science

Genetically modified food

History of agricultural science

History of gardening

Biotechnology (timeline, etc.)

History of sushi

History of tea in China

History of civil engineering

This section requires expansion.

Main articles: History of civil engineering and History of construction

To be incorporated:

Civil engineering

Architecture and building construction

Bridges, harbors, tunnels, dams

Surveying, instruments and maps, cartography, urban engineering, water supply and sewerage

History of communication

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of communication

To be incorporated:

Communications

Writing systems

Telecommunications

History of mobile phones

History of animation

History of broadcasting

History of radar

History of radio

Printing

Cinema

Radio

Television

Internet

History of computing

Main article: History of computer hardware

History of computing hardware before 1960

History of computing hardware (1960sresent)

History of computer hardware in Soviet Bloc countries

History of computer science

History of operating systems

History of software engineering

History of programming languages

History of artificial intelligence

History of the graphical user interface

History of the Internet

History of the World Wide Web

History of computer and video games

History of consumer technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of consumer technology

To be incorporated:

Timeline of lighting technology

History of textiles and clothing

History of materials science

Family and consumer science

History of knitting

History of lensmaking

History of the chair

History of the umbrella

Manufacturing

History of electrical engineering

This section requires expansion.

Main article: Electrical Engineering#History

To be incorporated:

History of street lighting in the United States

History of energy technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of energy

To be incorporated:

Energy (History, Use by humans, See also)

History of coal mining

History of perpetual motion machines

Timeline of steam power

Timeline of hydrogen technologies

Timeline of alcohol fuel

Timeline of nuclear fusion

History of materials science

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of materials science

To be incorporated:

Timeline of materials technology

Metallurgy

Materials and processing

History of measurement

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of measurement

To be incorporated:

History of time in the United States

Timeline of time measurement technology

History of medicine

Main article: History of medicine

This section requires expansion.

History of military technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of warfare

To be incorporated into main article:

Military history#Technological Evolution

Category:Military history articles on history of specific technologies

History of nuclear technology

Main article: Nuclear technology#History

Manhattan Project

Atomic Age

Nuclear testing

Nuclear arms race

History of science and technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: History of science and technology

History of telescopes

Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology

Timeline of microscope technology

Timeline of particle physics technology

Timeline of low-temperature technology

Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology

History of transport technology

This section requires expansion.

Main article: Historic transport

To be incorporated into main article:

Timeline of motor and engine technology

Timeline of photography technology

Timeline of rocket and missile technology

Timeline of communication technology

See also

Science portal

Related history

History of science

History of mathematics

History of philosophy

Related disciplines

Timeline of historic inventions

List of independent discoveries

Critique of technology

Technical education

Philosophy of technology

History of science and technology (field of study)

History of ideas (field of study)

Technology Dynamics (field of study)

Technology

Engineering

Mechanical engineering

Science and technology in Canada

Related subjects

High technology

Simple machine

Deindustrialization

Future of science and technology (speculative)

Futures Wiki, an external wiki

Emerging technologies

Futurology

Technological singularity

Technocapitalism

Technological change

Technological determinism

Technology forecasting

Robotics

People

List of engineers and list of inventors

Biography of inventors and explorers

Technical societies

Technocracy

Technology and society

Historiography of science and technology

Kranzberg's laws of technology

Lexikon der gesamten Technik

Exploratory engineering

Historians of science and technology

Johann Beckmann

I. Bernard Cohen

Ruth Schwartz Cowan

John L. Heilbron

Thomas P. Hughes

Daniel Kevles

Melvin Kranzberg

Thomas Kuhn

Dylan Stiddle

Lewis Mumford

Joseph Needham

Abraham Pais

George Sarton

Charles Singer

W. Patrick McCray

W. David Lewis

Silvio A. Bedini

Paul Josephson

Harry Lintsen

Journals and periodicals in the history of science and technology

History of Technology

ICON

Technology and Culture

Transactions of the Newcomen Society

Notebooks

Marx's notebooks on the history of technology

Research institutes

Bell Labs

Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin

Notes

^ http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0114_040114_siberianhumans.html

^ Oleson, John Peter (2000), "Water-Lifting", in Wikander, rjan, Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, 2, Leiden, pp. 217302, ISBN 90-04-11123-9 

^ Thomas F. Glick (1977), "Noria Pots in Spain", Technology and Culture 18 (4), p. 644-650.

^ a b Andrew M. Watson (1974), "The Arab Agricultural Revolution and Its Diffusion, 700-1100", The Journal of Economic History 34 (1), p. 8-35.

^ Andrew M. Watson (1983), Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052124711X.

^ Maya Shatzmiller, p. 36.

^ Adam Robert Lucas (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture 46 (1), p. 1-30 .

^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)

^ Bosworth, C. E. (Autumn 1981), "A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen?", Journal of Semitic Studies XXVl (i) 

^ ""Origins of the Fountain Pen "". Muslimheritage.com. http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?articleID=365. Retrieved September 18 2007. 

^ Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006.

^ DiscoveryChannel.ca Colossal construction: The world's nine largest science projects

References

Singer, C., Holmyard, E.J., Hall, A. R and Williams, T. I. (eds.), (1954-59 and 1978) A History of Technology,, 7 vols., Oxford, Clarendon Press,. (Vols 6 and 7, 1978, ed. T. I. Williams)

Kranzberg, Melvin and Pursell, Carroll W. Jr., eds. (1967)Technology in Western Civilization: Technology in the Twentieth Century New York: Oxford University Press.

Pacey, Arnold, (1974, 2ed 1994),The Maze of Ingenuity The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1974, [2ed 1994, cited here]

Derry, Thomas Kingston and Williams, Trevor I., (1993) A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900. New York: Dover Publications.

Brush, S. G. (1988). The History of Modern Science: A Guide to the Second Scientific Revolution 1800-1950. Ames: Iowa State University Press.

Bunch, Bryan and Hellemans, Alexander, (1993) The Timetables of Technology, New York, Simon and Schuster.

Greenwood, Jeremy (1997) The Third Industrial Revolution: Technology, Productivity and Income Inequality AEI Press.

Landa, Manuel de, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines, 2001.

Olby, R. C. et al., eds. (1996). Companion to the History of Modern Science,. New York, Routledge.

External links

Electropaedia on the History of Technology

http://www.fptt-pftt.gc.ca/success/century/1900_e.shtml This is a very good site for looking at Technology in the 1900s (20th century)

MIT 6.933J The Structure of Engineering Revolutions. From MIT OpenCourseWare, course materials (graduate level) for a course on the history of technology through a Thomas Kuhn-ian lens.

Concept of Civilization Events. From Jaroslaw Kessler, a chronology of "civilizing events".

Ancient and Medieval City Technology

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Garmin 0100057200 18GMR18 4kW Digital Marine Radar Dome $1383.18 GMR 18Package Includes:GMR 18Power/marine network cableCable connector kitCable holderOwner s manualThe GMR 18 allows you to experience the power of Xband digital marine radar scanning like never before. Get Powerful performance in a small containerAt 18 inches the 4 kW GMR 18 is twice as powerful as most other radars in its size and price range. Combine that with the antennas 5.2beamwidth and youre looking at the best weather penetration and target definition in its class.Connect to Garmin Marine NetworkGMR 18 has selfcontained signal processing that provides the ideal plugandplay addition to your Garmin Marine Network. Any compatible Garmin network chartplotter can double as your radar screen. And to aid in hazard avoidance MARPA target tracking is supported (with optional heading sensor).Product : GARMIN GMR 18 4KW DIGITAL 18 MARINE RADAR DOME Manufacturer : GARMIN Manufacturer Part No : 0100057200 UPC : 753759063900

Lowrance 00010418001 Lowrance 3G Broadband Radar Dome $1970.99 Lowrance Broadband 3G RadarPart #: 00010418001Faster better by farNew Broadband 3G Radar. Unrivaled target separation and detection near and farther with 30 more range. The safest choice for more boats.Features:. Crystal Clear Images. Zero Radiation Hazard. InstantOn in Seconds. Low Power Draw. Safe to Mount Anywhere. Quick Installation. Unmatched ShortRange Detection. 10 MARPA Targets 30 More RangeBroadband 3G Radar clearly marks more targets farther away from your boat. So you enjoy exclusive closein (6.5 ft/2 m) target detection of Broadband Radar technology with the addition of exposing distant targets previously unseen before.Unparalleled Short Range Target Discrimination Where it Matters MostLowrance Broadband Radar provides amazing target resolution even at an unprecedented 1/32 nm range. Docks channel markers moored vessels and other critical targets are displayed with pronounced clarity and separation for added safety and confidence in close quarters. Broadband Radar technology eliminates the main bang of pulse radar an obscured viewing dead zone immediately around the boat which prevents display of any closein hazards.Virtually No Radiation for Safe Flexible Installation on Any BoatLowrance Broadband Radar transmits at 1/10 000 the power of typical pulse radars emitting 5times less energy than an average cell phone So Broadband 3G Radar is safe to mount in locations never before possible. Plus with the lowest DC power draw of any Xband marine radar it s the first and only radar ideally suited for sailboats and other fishing or cruising boats with limited power.Navigation in an InstantNo more waiting 23 minutes for a pulse radar magnetron to warm up. The 100 solidstate Broadband 3G Radar design provides InstantOn navigation in seconds. In darkness fog or

Sitex MDS-8 Radar Sensor 2KW 20" Dome 1/8-24NM Radar Dome $1406.9 Sitex MDS-8 Radar Sensor 2KW 20" Dome 1/8-24NM Radar Dome

Garmin GMR And 153; 18 HD 18 Radar Dome $1199.99 GMR and 153; 18 HD Sharpen your radar picture with high definition performance. The GMR 18 HD radar offers a whole new level of radar scanning capability. Get Powerful Performance The GMR 18 HD features high-powered Digital Signal Processing, providing sharper radar imagery and improved target separation. This 18-inch, 4-kilowatt high definition radar has a 36 nm range, bringing radar images into even clearer focus. Combine that with the antennas 5. 0 degree beamwidth, and youre looking at the best weather penetration and target definition in its class. To help you avoid traffic on the water, the GMR 18 HD provides MARPA target tracking when combined with a multi-function display and an optional heading sensor. MARPA tracking allows you to track the bearing, course, speed and predicted closest approach of up to 10 targets. In addition, like all Garmin radars, the GMR 18 HD has self-contained signal processing, which provides you with a more precise, easy to read signature. Connect to the Garmin Marine Network The GMR 18 HD transmits data over the Garmin Marine Network, a 100-megabit plug-and-play proprietary network that gives you the ability to expand your boats system as needed. Once connected to the network, you can use any network-compatible Garmin chartplotter as your radar screen. And as an aid to locational awareness, you can overlay the GMR 18 HD radar image on the chartplotters map page. You can also split the on-screen display so that you can view the map and the standard radar page simultaneously.

Target Detection by Marine Radar $130 Radar is a legal necessity for the safe navigation of merchant ships and, within vessel traffic services, is indispensable to the operation of major ports and harbours. Target Detection by Marine Radar concentrates solely on civil marine operations and explains how civil surveillance radars detect their targets. There are numerous diagrams and worked examples to help the reader understand the principles underlying radar operation and to quantify the importance of factors such as technical features of specific equipment, the weather, and the ability of the operator. The accuracy with which targets are positioned on the radar screen and with which their progress is tracked or predicted depends on how definitely they have been detected, and so a whole chapter has been devoted to the issue of accuracy. The various international regulations governing marine radar are examined, a brief historical background is given to modern day practice and the book closes with a discussion of ways in which marine radar may develop to meet future challenges.

Garmin 320-00246-00 15m Marine Radar Power Cable $69.95 "Garmin 15m Marine Radar Power Cable (320-00246-00) Brand New, The Garmin 320-00246-00 is a replacement marine radar power cable that measures 15m in length. 320-00246-00 Features: Marine Radar Power Cable, Measures 15m. In Length"

Garmin 0100057203 24GMR24 HD Radar 4kW 48Nm Range High Definition Dome with 15m Cable $2599.99 GMR24 HDSharpen your radar picture with high definition. The GMR 24 HD radar scanner offers a whole new level of radar performance safety and situational awareness.Get Powerful PerformanceGMR 24 HD features highpowered Digital Signal Processing providing sharper radar imagery and improved target separation to recreational boaters professional mariners and yachtsmen.This 24inch 4kilowatt high definition radar has a 3.6 degree beamwidth and a 48 nm range. With automatic pulse optimization technology the radar matches pulse widths and repetition rates with the nautical mile range that is selected. This gives you powerful 4kilowatt radar penetration and unbelievably clear echo definition at all ranges up to 48 nm.To help you avoid traffic on the water the GMR 24 HD provides the option of MARPA target tracking when combined with a multifunction display and an optional heading sensor. MARPA tracking allows you to track the bearing course speed and predicted closest approach of up to 10 targets. In addition like all Garmin radars the GMR 24 HD has selfcontained signal processing which provides you with a more precise easy to read signature.Connect to the Garmin Marine NetworkThe GMR 24 HD transmits data over the Garmin Marine Network a 100megabit plugandplay proprietary network that gives you the ability to expand your boats system as needed. Once connected to the network you can use any networkcompatible Garmin chartplotter as your radar screen. And as an aid to locational awareness you can overlay the GMR 24 HD radar image on the chartplotter s map page. You can also split the onscreen display so that you can view the map and the standard radar page simultaneously.Product : GARMIN GMR24 HD RADAR 24 4KW 48NM RANGE HIGH DEF DOME Manufacturer : GARMIN Manufacturer Part No : 0100057203 UPC : 753759079420

Garmin 0100057202 18GMR18 HD Radar 4kW 36Nm Range High Definition Dome with 1m Cable $1659.82 GMR18 HDSharpen your radar picture with high definition performance. The GMR 18 HD radar offers a whole new level of radar scanning capability.Get Powerful PerformanceThe GMR 18 HD features highpowered Digital Signal Processing providing sharper radar imagery and improved target separation.This 18inch 4kilowatt high definition radar has a 36 nm range bringing radar images into even clearer focus. Combine that with the antennas 5.0 degree beamwidth and youre looking at the best weather penetration and target definition in its class.To help you avoid traffic on the water the GMR 18 HD provides MARPA target tracking when combined with a multifunction display and an optional heading sensor. MARPA tracking allows you to track the bearing course speed and predicted closest approach of up to 10 targets. In addition like all Garmin radars the GMR 18 HD has selfcontained signal processing which provides you with a more precise easy to read signature.Connect to the Garmin Marine NetworkThe GMR 18 HD transmits data over the Garmin Marine Network a 100megabit plugandplay proprietary network that gives you the ability to expand your boats system as needed. Once connected to the network you can use any networkcompatible Garmin chartplotter as your radar screen. And as an aid to locational awareness you can overlay the GMR 18 HD radar image on the chartplotter s map page. You can also split the onscreen display so that you can view the map and the standard radar page simultaneously.Product : GARMIN GMR18 HD RADAR 18 4KW 36NM RANGE HIGH DEF DOME Manufacturer : GARMIN Manufacturer Part No : 0100057202 UPC : 753759079413

Garmin / Garmin GMR 18 HD 18" Radar Dome / 010-00572-02 $1074.41 Garmin - Garmin GMR 18 HD 18" Radar Dome - 010-00572-02

Garmin GMR18 HD 18" Radar Dome 010-00572-02 $1244.79 Garmin GMR18 HD 18" Radar Dome 010-00572-02

Furuno LCD Radar 2.2KW 18" Dome 1715 $1987.22 Furuno LCD Radar 2.2KW 18" Dome 1715

Garmin Gmr 24 HD 24" Radar Dome 010-00572-03 $1866.89 Garmin Gmr 24 HD 24" Radar Dome 010-00572-03

Garmin Replacement Marine Radar Power Cable - 15 meters $69.99 GARMIN 15M MARINE RADAR POWER CABLE ONLYPower cable (replacement) Only

Garmin / Garmin 15m Marine Radar Power Cable / 320-00246-00 $49.95 Garmin - Garmin 15m Marine Radar Power Cable - 320-00246-00

Garmin / Garmin GMR 18 18" Digital Marine Radar / 010-00572-00 $896.81 Garmin - Garmin GMR 18 18" Digital Marine Radar - 010-00572-00

Furuno 1623 LCD Marine Radar 2.2KW 16NM 15DOME 1623-E-10 $1626.82 Furuno 1623 LCD Marine Radar 2.2KW 16NM 15DOME 1623-E-10

Garmin 15M Marine Radar Power Cable Only 3200024600 $50.24 Garmin 15M Marine Radar Power Cable Only 3200024600

Garmin GPS GMR18 4KW Digital Marine Radar 0100057200 $1019.94 Garmin GPS GMR18 4KW Digital Marine Radar 0100057200

Simrad 00010420001 Simrad 3G Broadband Radar Dome fNSE NSO NSS Series $2134.92 Simrad Broadband 3G RadarFaster better longer...Join the Broadband Radar revolution for superior shortrange target detection and unrivalled target separation.. Crystal Clear Images. Zero Radiation Hazard. InstantOn. Low Power Consumption. Mount Anywhere. Quick Installation. Unrivalled ShortRange Performance. 10 MARPA TargetsNow with 30 more range.Broadband 3G Radar allows you to see more targets farther away from your boat. Now you get the same impressive shortrange capabilities of the original Broadband Radar with the addition of exposing targets previously unseen before. Unparalleled Short Range Target Discrimination Where it Matters MostSimrad Yachting s Broadband Radar provides amazing target resolution even at an unprecedented 1/32 nm range. Docks channel markers moored vessels and other critical targets are displayed with clarity and separation for added confi dence in close quarters. Broadband Radar technology also eliminates the main bang of a pulse radar the obscured dead zone immediately around the vessel which interferes with close target detection.Lowest RF Transmission for Safe Flexible InstallationBecause Simrad Broadband Radar transmits at 1/10 000 the power of typical pulse radars (emitting 5 times less energy than an average cell phone) the radome is safe to mount in locations never before possible. In addition the lowest DC power draw of any Xband marine radar makes this system ideally suited for sailboats and other vessels with limited power.Navigation in an InstantNo more waiting 23 minutes for a magnetron to warm up 100 solidstate design provides InstantOn capability. When darkness falls or the fog rolls in you will always be ready. Ideal for sailboats wishing to save power or boats at anchor not wishing to run the radar continuously.SPECIFICATIONSRADA

Decommissioned NATO Radar Dome in Use at Earth's Northernmost Town $39.99 Gordon Wiltsie Decommissioned NATO Radar Dome in Use at Earth's Northernmost Town - Photographic Print

Lowrance 000-10418-001 Lowrance 3G Broadband Radar Dome $1299 "Lowrance 3G Broadband Radar Dome Brand New Includes Two Year Warranty, Product # 000-10418-001 The Lowrance 000-10418-001 is the 3G Broadband Radar Dome for HDS systems. It features Broadband Radar&trade technology that facilitates crystal clear image of your immediate surroundings. It is easy to use for both experienced and novice navigators. It's the first radar with no radiation hazard. This unit gives great performance with its compact, dependable design, and works with Ethernet for onboard radar display sharing. 000-10418-001 Features: Digital Radar, Crystal Clear Images of Surroundings, No Radiation Hazard, InstantOn&trade w/ No Tuning Required, Low Power Draw, Safe to Mount Anywhere, Quick Installation, Unmatched Short-Range Detection, 10 MARPA Targets, Antenna Receiver Noise Figure 6 dB, Antenna Rotation Speed 24/36 rpm /- 10 RPM, Transmitter Frequency X-Band 9.3 - 9.4GHz, Transmitter Power Output 165mW Nominal, Power Supply 9 - 31.2vDC, 5.2&deg Horizontal / 25&deg Vertical Beamwidth, Included FREE: 33' (10m) Radar Cable, Mounting Kit Hardware, Installation Template, Owner's Manual"

Close-Up of Radar Antenna on Top of Mast of Merchant Marine Ship $79.99 Close-Up of Radar Antenna on Top of Mast of Merchant Marine Ship - Premium Photographic Print

RAYMARINE A55077D 10Meter Cable for Digital Radar Dome $255.14 The Raymarine A55077D is a 10meter SeaTalk radar cable for connecting digital and HD digital radar antennas to the multifunction displays. The Raymarine A55077D has many exciting features for users of all types. The Raymarine A55077D is sold as a Brand New Unopened Item. SeaTalk hs Radar Cable. 10m Cable Length. Connects Radar Antennas to Multifunction Display.

The Boaters Guide to Using Marine Radar - $24.99 This informative program for active boaters offers a number of tips and explanations on how to use radar in the water in order to help avoid collisions. Some of the elements that the program explains in this regard include measuring baring, sea clutter, unusual propagation, and much more. ~ Cammila Albertson, Rovi

Garmin GMR 18 Digital Radar Scanner for Marine Network $899.99 Call it radar love. Call it more juice in a smaller container. But whatever you call it, Garmin's powerful 4-kilowatt GMR 18 Digital Marine Radar Scanner is clearly a breakthrough in X-band digital radar design. Its space-saving 18-inch radome with self-contained signal processing provides the idea

Garmin / Garmin GMR™ 24 HD 24" Radar Dome / 010-00572-03 $1607.21 Garmin - Garmin GMR™ 24 HD 24" Radar Dome - 010-00572-03

Furuno 2.2KW 18 Radome 24 Nm Range 5.2 Deg Beam Furuno Radar Dome $1486.47 Furuno 2.2KW 18 Radome 24 Nm Range 5.2 Deg Beam Furuno Radar Dome

FURUNO NAVNET 3D ULTRA HIGH DEFINITION 19" 2KW RADAR DOME DRS2D $2348.6 FURUNO NAVNET 3D ULTRA HIGH DEFINITION 19" 2KW RADAR DOME DRS2D

Garmin GMR 18 HD High-Definition Marine Radar Scanner $1099.99 Sharpen your radar picture with high definition performance. The Garmin GMR 18 HD radar offers a whole new level of radar scanning capability. Get Powerful Performance The GMR 18 HD features high-powered Digital Signal Processing, providing sharper radar imagery and improved target separation. This

Garmin GMR 24 HD High-Definition Marine Radar Scanner $1799.99 Sharpen your radar picture with high definition. The Garmin GMR 24 HD radar scanner offers a whole new level of radar performance, safety and situational awareness. Get Powerful Performance GMR 24 HD features high-powered Digital Signal Processing, providing sharper radar imagery and improved target

Navico Broadband 4G Radar for Lowrance HDS Series $1899 Reinventing Radar Lowrance has pioneered a new standard of dome radar, first with the award-winning BR24, and more recently with the Broadband 3G Radar. The latest innovation from Lowrance breaks even our high standards. Lowrance now offers two Broadband Radar choices; the outstanding Broadband 3G R

Sea Based X-Band Radar Dome Modeled by the Setting Sun at Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard $24.99 Stocktrek Images Sea Based X-Band Radar Dome Modeled by the Setting Sun at Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard - Photographic Print

Radar and ARPA Manual $97.95 Radar and ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aids) are standard systems on all commercial vessels and are widely used in the leisure maritime sector. This fully revised new edition covers the complete radar/ARPA installation and serves as the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference on equipment and techniques for radar observers using older and newer systems alike. Suitable for use both as a professional user's reference and as a training text, it covers all aspects of radar, ARPA and integrated bridge system technology, its use and its role in shipboard operations. Reference is made throughout to IMO (International Maritime Organisation) Performance Standards, the role of radar in navigation and in collision avoidance, and to international professional and amateur marine operations qualifications. *The most up-to-date book available, with full coverage of modern radar and ARPA systems, integrated electronic bridge systems and the 2004 IMO Radar regulations *The industry authority text, widely-used *Meets professional, educational and leisure maritime needs, covering both professional and amateur certificate requirements

Radar and Arpa Manual (Paperback) $183.59 Radar and ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aids) are standard systems on all commercial vessels and are widely used in the leisure maritime sector. This fully revised new edition covers the complete radar/ARPA installation and serves as the most comprehensive and up-to-date reference on equipment and techniques for radar observers using older and newer systems alike. Suitable for use both as a professional user`s reference and as a training text, it covers all aspects of radar, ARPA and integrated bridge system technology, its use and its role in shipboard operations. Reference is made throughout to IMO (International Maritime Organisation) Performance Standards, the role of radar in navigation and in collision avoidance, and to international professional and amateur marine operations qualifications.* The most up-to-date book available, with full coverage of modern radar and ARPA systems, integrated electronic bridge systems and the 2004 IMO Radar regulations* The industry authority text, widely-used* Meets professional, educational and leisure maritime needs, covering both professional and amateur certificate requirements